Diagnosis and management of tuberculosis infection in inclusion health populations in London.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis in the UK is more prevalent in people with social risk factors- e.g. previous incarceration, homelessness - and in migrants from TB endemic countries. The management of TB infection is part of TB elimination strategies, but is challenging to provide to socially excluded groups and the evidence base for effective interventions is small. METHODS: We evaluated a TB infection screening and treatment programme provided by a peer-led service (Find&Treat) working in inclusion health settings (e.g. homeless hostels) in London. IGRA (interferon-gamma release assay) testing and TB infection treatment were offered to eligible adults using a community-based model. The primary outcome was successful progression through the cascade of care. We also evaluated socio-demographic characteristics associated with a positive IGRA. RESULTS: 42/312 (13.5%) participants had a positive IGRA and no one had evidence of active TB. 35/42 completed a medical evaluation; 22 started treatment, and 17 completed treatment. Having a positive IGRA was associated with previous incarceration and being born outside of the UK. DISCUSSION: Provision of TB infection diagnosis and management to this socially excluded population has several challenges including maintaining people in care and drug-drug interactions. Peer-support workers provided this service safely and effectively with appropriate support. Further work to generate data to inform risks and benefits of treatment for TB infection in this group is needed to facilitate joint decision making.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) screening, linkage and retention-in-care in inclusion health populations: Evaluation of an outreach screening programme in London.

OBJECTIVES: We evaluated a hepatitis B virus (HBV) screening programme, delivered by a specialist pan-London multidisciplinary outreach team, to understand population characteristics and care cascade among people who experience extreme social exclusion (Inclusion Health (IH) groups). METHODS: Point-of-care HBV screening was performed in temporary accommodation for people experiencing homelessness (PEH) and people seeking asylum (initial accommodation centres, IACs) via a mobile unit staffed by peers with lived experience, nurses, and doctors. We analysed demographics and HBV characteristics of adults screened between May 2020 and January 2022. We ascertained linkage-to-care (LTC), retention-in-care (RIC) and loss-to-follow-up (LTFU). People LTFU were contacted by peers to re-engage in care. RESULTS: 2473 people were screened: 809 in IACs, 1664 in other temporary accommodation. Overall hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) prevalence was 1.7% (43/2473), highest in IACs (3.5%, 28/809). LTC within 3 months was 56% (24/43) and RIC, 87% (26/30). LTC was higher when referred to a local IH-specialist hepatitis service, compared to other services (77%, 17/22 vs 33%, 7/21; p = 0.006). LTFU was 30% (13/43), reduced to 21% (9/43) after intervention by peers. CONCLUSION: Our findings support outreach screening among IH populations and peer-supported linkage to IH-specialist hepatitis services. We recommend increased HBV testing and HBV-specific IH specialist services.

The forgotten people: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection as a priority for the inclusion health agenda.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection represents a significant global health threat, accounting for 300 million chronic infections and up to 1 million deaths each year. HBV disproportionately affects people who are under-served by health systems due to social exclusion, and can further amplify inequities through its impact on physical and mental health, relationship with stigma and discrimination, and economic costs. The 'inclusion health' agenda focuses on excluded and vulnerable populations, who often experience barriers to accessing healthcare, and are under-represented by research, resources, interventions, advocacy, and policy. In this article, we assimilate evidence to establish HBV on the inclusion health agenda, and consider how this view can inform provision of better approaches to diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. We suggest approaches to redress the unmet need for HBV interventions among excluded populations as an imperative to progress the global goal for the elimination of viral hepatitis as a public health threat.

"It's too hard" - the management of latent TB in under-served populations in the UK: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: UK national guidance recommends systematic screening for latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) in under-served populations, including people experiencing homelessness and people who use drugs. This is not routinely implemented in the UK, and the reasons for this policy-practice mismatch remain underexplored. METHODS: Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with 19 healthcare professionals from across the UK. Participants were recruited using purposive sampling and snowballing, identifying individuals with excellent knowledge of their regions practice and policy of LTBI management. The interviews were conducted online, and were audio recorded, with transcripts thematically analysed using a two-stage inductive coding process to explore perceived barriers and enablers to LTBI screening. RESULTS: Most participants had previous experience managing LTBI in under-served populations, but none were conducting systematic screening as per national guidance. We identified service provision challenges and low prioritisation of LTBI as the key explanatory themes driving this policy-practice mismatch. Lack of resource, and the complexity of clinical decision making were two key service level barriers. System and service inertia, and lack of cost effectiveness evidence led to LTBI being deprioritised. Service integration and promotion of WHO targets for TB elimination were highlighted as potential solutions. CONCLUSION: Integrating LTBI testing and treatment with existing health services for under-served populations could improve feasibility and efficacy. Promotion of UK TB elimination goals and generation of regional evidence to support commissioning for LTBI care is vital. Without such a multi-pronged approach inertia is likely to persist and the zeitgeist will remain: "it's too hard".

VirA+EmiC project: Evaluating real-world effectiveness and sustainability of integrated routine opportunistic hepatitis B and C testing in a large urban emergency department.

Innovative testing approaches and care pathways are required to meet global hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) elimination goals. Routine blood-borne virus (BBV) testing in emergency departments (EDs) in high-prevalence areas is suggested by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) but there is limited evidence for this. Universal HIV testing in our ED according to UK guidance has been operational since 2015. We conducted a real-world service evaluation of a modified electronic patient record (EPR) system to include opportunistic opt-out HBV/reflex-HCV tests for any routine blood test orders for ED attendees aged ≥16 years. Reactive laboratory results were communicated directly to specialist clinical teams. Our model for contacting patients requiring linkage to care (new diagnoses/known but disengaged) evolved from initially primarily hospital-led to collaborating with regional health and community service networks. Over 11 months, 81,088 patients attended the ED; 36,865 (45.5%) had a blood test. Overall uptake for both HBV and HCV testing was 75%. Seroprevalence was 0.9% for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and 0.9% for HCV antigen (HCV-Ag). 79% of 140 successfully contacted HBsAg+patients required linkage to care, of which 87% engaged. 76% of 130 contactable HCV-Ag+patients required linkage, 52% engaged. Our results demonstrate effectiveness and sustainability of universal ED EPR opt-out HBV/HCV testing combined with comprehensive linkage to care pathways, allowing care provision particularly for marginalized at-risk groups with limited healthcare access. The findings support the ECDC BBV testing guidance and may inform future UK hepatitis testing guidance.

Evaluating the effect of short-course rifapentine-based regimens with or without enhanced behaviour-targeted treatment support on adherence and completion of treatment for latent tuberculosis infection among adults in the UK (RID-TB: Treat): protocol for an open-label, multicentre, randomised controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: The successful scale-up of a latent tuberculosis (TB) infection testing and treatment programme is essential to achieve TB elimination. However, poor adherence compromises its therapeutic effectiveness. Novel rifapentine-based regimens and treatment support based on behavioural science theory may improve treatment adherence and completion. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: A pragmatic multicentre, open-label, randomised controlled trial assessing the effect of novel short-course rifapentine-based regimens for TB prevention and additional theory-based treatment support on treatment adherence against standard-of-care. Participants aged between 16 and 65 who are eligible to start TB preventive therapy will be recruited in England. 920 participants will be randomised to one of six arms with allocation ratio of 5:5:6:6:6:6: daily isoniazid +rifampicin for 3 months (3HR), routine treatment support (control); 3HR, additional treatment support; weekly isoniazid +rifapentine for 3 months (3HP), routine treatment support; weekly 3HP, additional treatment support ; daily isoniazid +rifapentine for 1 month (1HP), routine treatment support; daily 1HP, additional treatment support. Additional treatment support comprises reminders using an electronic pillbox, a short animation, and leaflets based on the perceptions and practicalities approach. The primary outcome is adequate treatment adherence, defined as taking ≥90% of allocated doses within the pre-specified treatment period, measured by electronic pillboxes. Secondary outcomes include safety and TB incidence within 12 months. We will conduct process evaluation of the trial interventions and assess intervention acceptability and fidelity and mechanisms for effect and estimate the cost-effectiveness of novel regimens. The protocol was developed with patient and public involvement, which will continue throughout the trial. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Ethics approval has been obtained from The National Health Service Health Research Authority (20/LO/1097). All participants will be required to provide written informed consent. We will share the results in peer-reviewed journals. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: EudraCT 2020-004444-29.

Exploring a combined biomarker for tuberculosis treatment response: protocol for a prospective observational cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: An improved understanding of factors explaining tuberculosis (TB) treatment response is urgently needed to help clinicians optimise and personalise treatment and assist scientists undertaking novel treatment regimen trials. Promising outcome proxy measures, including sputum bacillary load and host immune response, are widely reported with variable results. However, they have not been studied together in combination with antibiotic exposure. The aim of this observational cohort study is to investigate which antibiotic exposures correlate with sputum bacillary load and which with the host immune response. Subsequently, we will explore if these correlations can be used to inform a candidate combined biomarker predicting cure. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: All patients aged ≥ 18, diagnosed with drug-sensitive pulmonary TB (culture or molecular test), eligible for standard anti-TB treatment, at selected London, UK TB Services, will be invited to participate in this observational cohort study (target sample size=210). Patients will be asked to give blood for host transcriptomics and antibiotic plasma exposure, in addition to standard of care sputum samples for bacillary load. Antibiotic plasma concentrations will be quantified using a validated liquid chromatograph triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS) assay and sputum bacillary load by mycobacterial growth incubator tube time to positivity. Expression from a total of 35 prespecified host blood genes will be quantified using NanoString®. Antibiotic exposure, sputum bacillary load and host blood transcriptomic time series data will be analysed using nonlinear mixed-effects models. Correlations between combinations of longitudinal biomarkers and microbiological cure at the end of treatment and remaining relapse free for 1 year thereafter will be analysed using logistic regression and Cox proportional hazard models. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The observational cohort study has been approved by the UK's HRA REC (20/SW/0007). Written informed consent will be obtained. Results will be disseminated via publication, presentation and through engagement with institutes/companies developing novel anti-TB treatment combinations.

Exploring and understanding HCV patient journeys- HEPCARE Europe project.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) is a leading cause for chronic liver diseases worldwide. The European Union and World Health Organization aspire to eliminate HCV by 2030. However, among at-risk populations, including, homeless people, prisoners and People Who Inject Drugs, access to diagnosis and treatment is challenging. Hepcare Europe is an integrated model of care developed to address this by assessing potential reasons for these restrictions and determining measures needed to improve HCV diagnosis, treatment and access to care within different communities. OBJECTIVES: HepCare Europe is an EU-supported project involving collaboration between five institutions in: Ireland, United Kingdom, Spain and Romania. We aim to explore the journey of care experienced by those living with HCV with a focus on previous care disruptions (loss to follow up) and the new HepCare Europe Programme. METHODS: Research teams conducted semi-structured interviews with patients who accessed services through HepCare Europe thus, patients were recruited by purposeful sampling. Patients interviewed had received, or were in the final weeks of receiving, treatment. The interviews were audio recorded, transcribed and translated into English, and sent to the Dublin team for inductive thematic analysis. Researchers from the HepCare Europe research team coded the data separately, then together. RESULTS: Common themes are introduced to present similarities, following individual site themes to highlight the importance of tailored interventions for each country. Key themes are: 1) Hepatitis C patients lost to follow up 2) HepCare improved access to treatment and 3) the need for improved HCV education. Individual themes also emerged for each site. These are: Ireland: New opportunities associated with achieving Sustained Virologic Responses (SVR). Romania: HCV is comparatively less crucial in light of Human Immunodeficiency Viruses (HIV) coinfections. UK: Patients desire support to overcome social barriers and Spain: Improved awareness of HCV, treatment and alcohol use. CONCLUSION: This study identified how the tailored HepCare interventions enabled improved HCV testing and linkage to care outcomes for these patients. Tailored interventions that targeted the needs of patients, increased the acceptability and success of treatment by patients. HepCare demonstrated the need for flexibility in treatment delivery, and provided additional supports to keep patients engaged and educated on new treatment therapies.

Practising critical resilience as an advanced peer support worker in London: A qualitative evaluation of a peer-led hepatitis C intervention amongst people experiencing homelessness who inject drugs.

BACKGROUND: Peer support has been used as a mechanism to facilitate active engagement with healthcare amongst underserved populations. The HepCare project upskilled experienced peer support workers (PSWs) to become equal members of a service provider team, taking on advanced clinical roles normally carried out by medical or nursing specialists. METHOD: A participatory case study approach was taken to the study following the methodological guidance of Merriam (1998). The subject of the case in our study is the advanced peer support workers (APSWs) functioning in the HepCare project as service providers. The object of the case is an exploration of their transition to service provider in the HCV screening and treatment support service. Five peer led in-depth interviews with APSWs were supplemented by a survey of health professionals, interviews with service users, documentary evidence in the form of job descriptions, observational notes and a blog from the field. Thematic analysis of the data was conducted, refined and finalised in a workshop with the research team and APSW participants. RESULTS: Three themes were generated from the data that explore the peer support worker's transition to APSW in the programme: Transition to Integration, Retaining 'Peerness', and Practising Critical Resilience. The advocacy and support enacted by the APSWs through the HepCare project, offer purpose and meaning alongside integration into a new social group. This is buffered by the supportive context of the programme and facilitates a motivating sense of worth. CONCLUSION: The programme offers policy guidance for the structured career development of APSWs and a platform for enactment of critical resilience as they transition to their advanced role, in the healthcare provider team.

HEPCARE EUROPE- A case study of a service innovation project aiming at improving the elimination of HCV in vulnerable populations in four European cities.

OBJECTIVES: Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) is a significant cause of chronic liver disease. Among at-risk populations, access to diagnosis and treatment is challenging. We describe an integrated model of care, Hepcare Europe, developed to address this challenge. METHODS: Using a case-study approach, we describe the cascade of care outcomes at all sites. Cost analyses estimated the cost per person screened and linked to care. RESULTS: A total of 2608 participants were recruited across 218 clinical sites. HCV antibody test results were obtained for 2568(98•5%); 1074(41•8%) were antibody-positive, 687(60•5%) tested positive for HCV-RNA, 650(60•5%) were linked to care, and 319(43•5%) started treatment. 196(61•4%) of treatment initiates achieved a Sustained Viral Response (SVR) at dataset closure, 108(33•9%) were still on treatment, eight (2•7%) defaulted from treatment, and seven (2•6%) had virologic failure or died. The cost per person screened varied from €194 to €635, while the cost per person linked to care varied from €364 to €2035. CONCLUSIONS: Hepcare enhanced access to HCV treatment and cure, and costs were affordable in all settings, offering a framework for scale-up and reproducibility.

HepCare Europe-A service innovation project. HepCheck: Characteristics of the patient population with active infection as defined by HCV RNA.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a main cause of chronic liver disease worldwide and is consistently under-diagnosed. Community-based screening initiatives, such as HepCheck, have been identified as important components of HCV care. HepCheck focuses on screening and identifying HCV RNA-positive cases in high-risk populations and linking them to care as part of a larger European project to improve HCV care (HepCare). METHODS: HCV testing with a self-administered questionnaire was offered to 2822 individuals. RESULTS: There were 2079 patients screened. Overall, 397 (19%) of the total screened cohort were identified as having active HCV infections as measured by HCV RNA PCR. The patients were mostly male (84%), white (88%), and had a history of injecting drug use (IDU) (86%), homelessness (58%), and tattooing (42%). There were 136 new cases (7% of the total sample and 34% of identified active infections). Romania had the highest proportion of newly identified cases with 87%, then Ireland with 60%, and Spain with 43%; the UK had the lowest proportion of new cases at 10%. CONCLUSIONS: For those lost to follow-up, a major strategy is re-engagement. For those newly diagnosed, the 'seek and treat' approach is a key strategy. Thus, different priorities are defined for different countries.

HepCare Europe: a service innovation project. HepCheck: enhancing HCV identification and linkage to care for vulnerable populations through intensified outreach screening. A prospective multisite feasibility study.

OBJECTIVES: Hepatitis C is one of the main causes of chronic liver diseases worldwide. One of the major barriers to effecting EU- and WHO-mandated HCV elimination by 2030 is underdiagnosis. Community-based screening strategies have been identified as important components of HCV models of care. HepCheck Europe is a large-scale intensified screening initiative aimed at enhancing identification of HCV infection among vulnerable populations and linkage to care. METHODS: Research teams across four European countries were engaged in the study and rolled out screening to high-risk populations in community addiction, homeless and prison services. Screening was offered to 2822 individuals and included a self-administered questionnaire, HCV antibody and RNA testing, liver fibrosis assessment and referral to specialist services. RESULTS: There was a 74% (n=2079) uptake of screening. The majority (85.8%, n=1783) were male. In total 44.6% (n=927) of the sample reported ever injecting drugs, 38.4% (n=799) reported ever being homeless and 27.9% (n=581) were prisoners. In total 397 (19%) active HCV infections were identified and 136 (7% of total sample and 34% of identified active infections) were new cases. Of those identified with active HCV infection, 80% were linked to care, which included liver fibrosis assessment and referral to specialist services. CONCLUSIONS: HepCheck's screening and linkage to care is a clear strategy for reaching high-risk populations, including those at highest risk of transmission who are not accessing any type of care in the community. Elimination of HCV in the EU will only be achieved by such innovative, patient-centred approaches.

From peer-based to peer-led: redefining the role of peers across the hepatitis C care pathway: HepCare Europe.

BACKGROUND: HCV infection disproportionately affects underserved populations such as homeless individuals, people who inject drugs and prison populations. Peer advocacy can enable active engagement with healthcare services and increase the likelihood of favourable treatment outcomes. OBJECTIVES: This observational study aims to assess the burden of disease in these underserved populations and describe the role of peer support in linking these individuals to specialist treatment services. METHODS: Services were identified if they had a high proportion of individuals with risk factors for HCV, such as injecting drug use or homelessness. Individuals were screened for HCV using point-of-care tests and a portable FibroScan. All positive cases received peer support for linkage to specialist care. Information was gathered on risk factors, demographics and follow-up information regarding linkage to care and treatment outcomes. RESULTS: A total of 461 individuals were screened, of which 197 (42.7%) were chronically infected with HCV. Referral was made to secondary care for 176 (89.3%) and all received peer support, with 104 (52.8%) individuals engaged with treatment centres. Of these, 89 (85.6%) started treatment and 76 (85.4%) had a favourable outcome. Factors associated with not being approved for treatment were recent homelessness, younger age and current crack cocaine injecting. CONCLUSIONS: Highly trained peer support workers working as part of a specialist outreach clinical team help to identify a high proportion of individuals exposed to HCV, achieve high rates of engagement with treatment services and maintain high rates of treatment success amongst a population with complex needs.

Integrating primary and secondary care to optimize hepatitis C treatment: development and evaluation of a multidisciplinary educational Masterclass series.

BACKGROUND: It is increasingly being recognized that the elimination of HCV requires a multidisciplinary approach and effective cooperation between primary and secondary care. OBJECTIVES: As part of a project (HepCare Europe) to integrate primary and secondary care for patients at risk of or infected with HCV, we developed a multidisciplinary educational Masterclass series for healthcare professionals (HCPs) working in primary care in Dublin and Bucharest. This article aims to describe and evaluate the series and examine how this model might be implemented into practice. METHODS: GPs and other HCPs working in primary care, addiction treatment services and NGOs were invited to eight 1 day symposia (HCV Masterclass series), examining the burden and management of HCV in key populations. Peer-support sessions were also conducted, to give people affected by HCV and community-based organizations working with those directly affected, an update on the latest developments in HCV treatment. RESULTS: One hundred percent of participants 'strongly agreed' or 'agreed' that the Masterclass helped them to appreciate the role of integrated services in 'the management of patients with HCV'. One hundred percent of participants indicated the importance of a 'designated nurse to liaise with hospital services'. An improvement of knowledge regarding HCV management of patients with high-risk behaviour was registered at the end of the course. CONCLUSIONS: Integrated approaches to healthcare and improving the knowledge of HCPs and patients of the latest developments in HCV treatment are very important strategies that can enhance the HCV care pathway and treatment outcomes.

Integrating hepatitis C care for at-risk groups (HepLink): baseline data from a multicentre feasibility study in primary and community care.

OBJECTIVES: To examine HCV prevalence and management among people who inject drugs (PWID) attending primary care and community-based health services at four European sites using baseline data from a multicentre feasibility study of a complex intervention (HepLink). METHODS: Primary care and community-based health services in Dublin, London, Bucharest and Seville were recruited from the professional networks of the HepLink consortium. Patients were eligible to participate if aged ≥18 years, on opioid substitution treatment or at risk of HCV (i.e. injecting drug use, homeless or incarcerated), and attended the service. Data on patient demographics and prior HCV management were collected on participants at baseline. RESULTS: Twenty-nine primary care and community-based health services and 530 patients were recruited. Baseline data were collected on all participants. Participants' mean age ranged from 35 (Bucharest) to 51 years (London), with 71%-89% male. Prior lifetime HCV antibody testing ranged from 65% (Bucharest) to 95% (Dublin) and HCV antibody positivity among those who had been tested ranged from 78% (Dublin) to 95% (Bucharest). Prior lifetime HCV RNA testing among HCV antibody-positive participants ranged from 17% (Bucharest) to 84% (London). Among HCV antibody- or RNA-positive participants, prior lifetime attendance at a hepatology/infectious disease service ranged from 6% (London) to 50% (Dublin) and prior lifetime HCV treatment initiation from 3% (London) to 33% (Seville). CONCLUSIONS: Baseline assessment of the HCV cascade of care among PWID attending primary care and community-based health services at four European sites identified key aspects of the care cascade at each site that need to be improved.

The cost-effectiveness of an HCV outreach intervention for at-risk populations in London, UK.

BACKGROUND: HCV disproportionately affects marginalized communities such as homeless populations and people who inject drugs (PWID), posing a challenge to traditional health services. The HepFriend initiative in London is a model of care utilizing HCV outreach screening and peer support to link vulnerable individuals to HCV treatment in secondary care. OBJECTIVES: To assess the cost-effectiveness of the HepFriend initiative from a healthcare provider perspective, compared with standard-of-care pathways (consisting of testing in primary care and other static locations, including drug treatment centres, and linkage to secondary care). METHODS: Cost-effectiveness analysis using a dynamic HCV transmission and disease progression model among PWID and those who have ceased injecting, including housing status and drug treatment service contact. The model was parameterized using London-specific surveillance and survey data, and primary intervention cost and effectiveness data (September 2015 to June 2018). Out of 461 individuals screened, 197 were identified as HCV RNA positive, 180 attended secondary care and 89 have commenced treatment to date. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) was determined using a 50 year time horizon. RESULTS: For a willingness-to-pay threshold of £20000 per QALY gained, the HepFriend initiative is cost-effective, with a mean ICER of £9408/QALY, and would become cost saving at 27% (£10525 per treatment) of the current drug list price. Results are robust to variations in intervention costs and model assumptions, and if treatment rates are doubled the intervention becomes more cost-effective (£8853/QALY). CONCLUSIONS: New models of care that undertake active case-finding with enhanced peer support to improve testing and treatment uptake amongst marginalized and vulnerable groups could be highly cost-effective and possibly cost saving.

Hepatitis B vaccination uptake in hard-to-reach populations in London: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: In the UK, hepatitis B virus (HBV) incidence is associated with migrants from particular high-burden countries and population groups deemed 'hard-to-reach' by standard healthcare services: the homeless, people who inject drugs and ex-prisoners. Currently, there is a national targeted HBV vaccine policy for such at-risk groups, but there is limited recent evidence about 1) the levels of vaccine uptake, 2) the factors associated with incomplete vaccination, and 3) reasons for incomplete vaccination. METHODS: A questionnaire capturing social and medical history, demographic factors and information about HBV vaccination status was completed by individuals deemed hard-to-reach due to socio-structural factors that criminalise, isolate and stigmatise who consented to participate in a randomised controlled trial of a peer intervention to promote engagement with hepatitis C services. The questionnaire also captured the reasons for incomplete vaccination. Descriptive, univariable and multivariable regression analyses were undertaken. RESULTS: Three hundred fourty six participants completed the questionnaire. 1) 52.3% (n = 181) reported full HBV vaccination. 2) Within a multivariable model adjusting for sociodemographic variables, the presence of one or two or more socio-structural factors that are included in the national targeted vaccination policy was associated with protection against incomplete HBV vaccination (51.7% vaccine coverage in those with one factor, odds ratio 0.43 [95% confidence interval 0.20-0.92]); 70.1% coverage with two or more factors, 0.19 [0.09-0.39]; overall p-value < 0.001). Being female was also associated with lower vaccine uptake (2.37 [1.24-4.57], 0.01). Examining the socio-structural factors individually, intravenous drug use was associated with protection against incomplete HBV vaccination. 3) The most common reasons declared for incomplete vaccination were never being offered the vaccine or not returning for further doses. CONCLUSION: Within this study of HBV vaccination uptake among hard-to-reach population groups in London, UK, we document 52.3% coverage of the full vaccine course. Critically, although participants recommended for immunisation within national guidelines had an increased likelihood of receiving a complete vaccine course, we note surprisingly low coverage in the presence of the risk factors that are national indicators for vaccination. Public health bodies should make additional efforts to improve coverage in the hard-to-reach through improved vaccine delivery systems. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN24707359 , Registered 19th October 2012.

Improving engagement with healthcare in hepatitis C: a randomised controlled trial of a peer support intervention.

BACKGROUND: Peer support can enable patient engagement with healthcare services, particularly for marginalised populations. In this randomised controlled trial, the efficacy of a peer support intervention at promoting successful engagement with clinical services for chronic hepatitis C was assessed. METHODS: In London, UK, potential participants were approached through outreach services for problematic drug use and homelessness. Individuals positive for hepatitis C virus (HCV) after confirmatory testing were randomised using an online service to the intervention (peer support) or standard of care. The primary outcome of interest was successful engagement with clinical hepatitis services. The study was non-blinded. Absolute differences were calculated using a generalised linear model and the results compared to logistic regression. RESULTS: Three hundred sixty-four individuals consented to participate. One hundred one had chronic hepatitis C and were randomised, 63 to receive the intervention (peer support). A successful outcome was achieved by 23 individuals in this arm (36.5%) and seven (18.4%) receiving the standard of care, giving an absolute increase of 18.1% (95% confidence interval 1.0-35.2%, p value = 0.04). This was mirrored in the logistic regression (odds ratio 2.55 (0.97-6.70), p = 0.06). No serious adverse events were reported. CONCLUSIONS: Peer support can improve the engagement of patients with chronic HCV with healthcare services. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN24707359 . Registered 19th October 2012.